Physics Awards: December 2024

Saturday, December 21, 2024

Probing New Physics at Cosmic Dawn #sciencefather #HEP awards #Physics #...

New Study Challenges Presence of Intermediate-Mass Black Hole in Omega Centauri

Research published in Astronomy & Astrophysics has cast doubt on the supposed discovery of an intermediate-mass black hole in the star cluster Omega Centauri. Initial findings suggested a black hole with a mass equivalent to 8,200 times that of the Sun resided at the cluster's core. However, a reanalysis indicates the high-velocity stars in this dense region could instead be influenced by a cluster of stellar-mass black holes. According to Justin Read, a physicist at the University of Surrey, in a statement, the likelihood of an intermediate black hole now appears slim, with its mass potentially less than 6,000 solar masses.

Why Intermediate-Mass Black Holes Matter

Intermediate-mass black holes, sitting between stellar-mass and supermassive black holes, are theorised to bridge the evolutionary gap between these extremes. Despite being crucial to understanding black hole growth, their existence remains elusive. Scientists initially believed the gravitational effects of an intermediate-mass black hole in Omega Centauri were responsible for accelerating stars to high speeds. As explained by Andrés Bañares Hernández from the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, to publications, investigating this cluster has refined the methods used to detect such objects.

New Data from Pulsar Observations

The revised analysis incorporated pulsar data, enhancing the accuracy of gravitational field measurements within Omega Centauri. Pulsars, the rapidly spinning remnants of collapsed stars, emit beams of radiation detectable as periodic pulses. Variations in their timing provided deeper insights into the gravitational dynamics of the cluster. This data led researchers to conclude that stellar-mass black holes, rather than an intermediate-mass black hole, are the likely cause of observed stellar velocities.

Future Prospects in Black Hole Research

While the study has not confirmed the existence of an intermediate-mass black hole in Omega Centauri, the researchers remain optimistic. According to Read, in his statment, ongoing advancements in pulsar timing techniques are expected to enhance the precision of black hole searches. These findings also offer a platform for understanding pulsar formation within dense star clusters.

Website: International Conference on High Energy Physics and Computational Science.

#HighEnergyPhysics#ParticlePhysics#QuantumPhysics#AstroparticlePhysics#ColliderPhysics#HiggsBoson#LHC#QuantumFieldTheory#NeutrinoPhysics#PhysicsResearch#ComputationalScience#DataScience#ScientificComputing#NumericalMethods#HighPerformanceComputing#MachineLearningInScience#BigData#AlgorithmDevelopment#SimulationScience#ParallelComputing

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Friday, December 20, 2024

New Type of Magnetism Discovered That Could Make Electronics 1000x Faster

Altermagnetism, a newly imaged class of magnetism, offers potential for the development of faster and more efficient magnetic memory devices, increasing operation speeds by up to a thousand times.

Researchers from the University of Nottingham have demonstrated that this third class of magnetism, combining properties of ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism, could revolutionize computer memory and reduce environmental impact by decreasing reliance on rare elements.
Altermagnetism’s Unique Properties

A groundbreaking study has imaged a newly discovered type of magnetism called altermagnetism for the first time. This discovery could pave the way for developing advanced magnetic memory devices capable of operating up to a thousand times faster than current technologies.

Altermagnetism is a unique magnetic order where tiny magnetic building blocks align in opposite (antiparallel) directions, similar to antiferromagnetism. However, unlike traditional antiferromagnetic materials, the crystal structures hosting these magnetic moments are rotated relative to one another, creating a distinct magnetic pattern.

Researchers from the University of Nottingham’s School of Physics and Astronomy have confirmed the existence of this third class of magnetism and demonstrated its control within microscopic devices. Their findings, published on December 11 in Nature, mark a significant step toward practical applications in next-generation technology.

Research Findings and Potential Impacts

Professor Peter Wadley, who led the study, explains: “Altermagnets consist of magnetic moments that point antiparallel to their neighbors. However, each part of the crystal hosting these tiny moments is rotated with respect to its neighbors. This is like antiferromagnetism with a twist! But this subtle difference has huge ramifications.”

Magnetic materials are used in the majority of long-term computer memory and the latest generation of microelectronic devices. This is not only a massive and vital industry but also a significant source of global carbon emissions. Replacing the key components with altermagnetic materials would lead to huge increases in speed and efficiency while having the potential to massively reduce our dependency on rare and toxic heavy elements needed for conventional ferromagnetic technology.

Altermagnets combine the favorable properties of ferromagnets and antiferromagnets into a single material. They have the potential to lead to a thousand-fold increase in speed of microelectronic components and digital memory while being more robust and energy efficient.

Website: International Conference on High Energy Physics and Computational Science.

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Quantum Devices: Heisenberg Spin Chain Dynamics #sciencefather #HEP awar...

Thursday, December 19, 2024

Physicists ‘Bootstrap’ Validity of String Theory

String theory, conceptualized more than 50 years ago as a framework to explain the formation of matter, remains elusive as a “provable” phenomenon. But a team of physicists has now taken a significant step forward in validating string theory by using an innovative mathematical method that points to its “inevitability.”

String theory posits that the most basic building blocks of nature are not particles, but, rather, one-dimensional vibrating strings that move at different frequencies in determining the type of particle that emerges akin to how vibrations of string instruments produce an array of musical notes.

In their work, reported in the journal Physical Review Letters, New York University and Caltech researchers posed the following question: “What is the math question to which string theory is the only answer?” This approach to understanding physics is known as the “bootstrap,” which is reminiscent of the adage about “pulling yourself up by your bootstraps” producing results without additional assistance or, in this case, input.

The bootstrap has previously allowed physicists to understand why general relativity and various particle theories like the interactions of gluons inside of protons are mathematically inevitable: they are the only consistent mathematical structures, under certain criteria.

“This paper provides an answer to this string-theory question for the first time,” says Grant Remmen, a James Arthur Postdoctoral Fellow in NYU’s Center for Cosmology and Particle Physics and one of the authors of the paper. “Now that these mathematical conditions are known, it brings us a step closer to understanding if and why string theory must describe our universe.”

The paper’s authors, who also included Clifford Cheung, a professor of theoretical physics at Caltech, and Aaron Hillman, a Caltech postdoctoral researcher, add that this breakthrough may be useful in better understanding quantum gravity it seeks to reconcile Einstein’s theory of relativity, which explains large-scale gravity, with quantum mechanics, which describes particle activity at the smallest scales.

“This approach opens a new area of study in analyzing the uniqueness of string amplitudes,” explains Remmen. “The development of tools outlined in our research can be used to investigate deformations of string theory, allowing us to map a space of possibilities for quantum gravity.”

Website: International Conference on High Energy Physics and Computational Science.

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Wednesday, December 18, 2024

A Physics Discovery So Strange It’s Changing Quantum Theory

MIT physicists surprised to discover electrons in pentalayer graphene can exhibit fractional charge.

New theoretical research from MIT physicists explains how it could work, suggesting that electron interactions in confined two-dimensional spaces lead to novel quantum states, independent of magnetic fields.

MIT physicists have made significant progress in understanding how electrons can split into fractional charges. Their findings reveal the conditions that create exotic electronic states in graphene and other two-dimensional materials.

This new research builds on a recent discovery by another MIT team led by Assistant Professor Long Ju. Ju’s group observed that electrons seem to carry “fractional charges” in pentalayer graphene a structure made of five stacked graphene layers placed on a similar sheet of boron nitride.

Ju discovered that when he sent an electric current through the pentalayer structure, the electrons seemed to pass through as fractions of their total charge, even in the absence of a magnetic field. Scientists had already shown that electrons can split into fractions under a very strong magnetic field, in what is known as the fractional quantum Hall effect. Ju’s work was the first to find that this effect was possible in graphene without a magnetic field which until recently was not expected to exhibit such an effect.

The phenemonon was coined the “fractional quantum anomalous Hall effect,” and theorists have been keen to find an explanation for how fractional charge can emerge from pentalayer graphene.

The new study, led by MIT professor of physics Senthil Todadri, provides a crucial piece of the answer. Through calculations of quantum mechanical interactions, he and his colleagues show that the electrons form a sort of crystal structure, the properties of which are ideal for fractions of electrons to emerge.

“This is a completely new mechanism, meaning in the decades-long history, people have never had a system go toward these kinds of fractional electron phenomena,” Todadri says. “It’s really exciting because it makes possible all kinds of new experiments that previously one could only dream about.”

In 2018, MIT professor of physics Pablo Jarillo-Herrero and his colleagues were the first to observe that new electronic behavior could emerge from stacking and twisting two sheets of graphene. Each layer of graphene is as thin as a single atom and structured in a chicken-wire lattice of hexagonal carbon atoms. By stacking two sheets at a very specific angle to each other, he found that the resulting interference, or moiré pattern, induced unexpected phenomena such as both superconducting and insulating properties in the same material. This “magic-angle graphene,” as it was soon coined, ignited a new field known as twistronics, the study of electronic behavior in twisted, two-dimensional materials.

“Shortly after his experiments, we realized these moiré systems would be ideal platforms in general to find the kinds of conditions that enable these fractional electron phases to emerge,” says Todadri, who collaborated with Jarillo-Herrero on a study that same year to show that, in theory, such twisted systems could exhibit fractional charge without a magnetic field. “We were advocating these as the best systems to look for these kinds of fractional phenomena,” he says.

Website: International Conference on High Energy Physics and Computational Science.

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Master Balance Equations in Physics Informed ML! #sciencefather #HEP Awa...

Tuesday, December 17, 2024

Google’s Quantum Chip Sparks Debate on Multiverse Theory

Google’s latest quantum computer chip, which the team dubbed Willow, has ignited a heated debate in the scientific community over the existence of parallel universes.

Following an eye-opening achievement in computational problem-solving, claims have surfaced that the chip’s success aligns with the theory of a multiverse, a concept that suggests our universe is one of many coexisting in parallel dimensions. In this piece, we’ll examine both sides of this argument that seems to have opened up a parallel universe of its own with one universe of scientists suggesting the Willow experiments offer evidence of a multiverse and the other suggesting it has nothing to do with the theory at all.

10 Septillion Years Is a Long Time For a Universe

According to Google, Willow solved a computational problem in under five minutes a task that would have taken the world’s fastest supercomputers approximately 10 septillion years. This staggering feat, announced in a blog post and accompanied by a study in the journal Nature, demonstrates the extraordinary potential of quantum computing to tackle problems once thought unsolvable within a human timeframe.

Google Quantum AI team founder Hartmut Neven argued that the chip’s success supports the idea of quantum computation occurring in many parallel universes, aligning with interpretations of quantum mechanics that are based on a multiverse.

Neven’s comments echo the theories of British physicist David Deutsch, who was among the first to suggest that quantum computation might involve parallel universes. Deutsch’s multiverse interpretation of quantum mechanics proposes that particles exist in multiple states simultaneously, a phenomenon that quantum computers leverage for their computational power.

David Deutsch’s Multiverse Theory and Its Connection to Quantum Computing

Deutsch was one of the first scientists to explicitly connect quantum mechanics with the multiverse. His work, particularly in the 1980s, built on the “many-worlds interpretation” of quantum mechanics proposed by Hugh Everett in the 1950s.

The many-worlds interpretation attempts to show that every quantum event results in a branching of the universe into multiple, coexisting realities. For example, if a particle can exist in two states, the universe splits into two versions one for each state. These branches are not merely hypothetical but are thought to represent real, parallel universes.

Deutsch extended this idea to quantum computing. In his view, when a quantum computer performs a computation, in broad strokes, it simultaneously processes information in multiple parallel universes. Each computation takes place in a distinct branch of reality, and the quantum computer effectively leverages this multiplicity to solve problems that are impossible for classical computers.

In practical terms, Deutsch argued that the extraordinary efficiency of quantum algorithms, such as Shor’s algorithm for factoring large numbers, can only be fully understood if quantum computers are seen as working across parallel universes. This interpretation has been highly influential, though not (as we shall see) universally accepted. Still, the idea remains a cornerstone of the multiverse argument in quantum mechanics.

The claims surrounding Google’s Willow chip resonate with Deutsch’s theories, as the chip’s computational feats appear to align with his description of quantum computing as an inherently multiverse-dependent process. However, skeptics caution that Deutsch’s interpretation is one of many competing frameworks within quantum mechanics, and more experimental evidence is needed to validate or refute the multiverse hypothesis.

Krori–Barua Dark Energy Stars Explained #sciencefather #HEP Awards #Dar...

Monday, December 16, 2024

The Mysterious Science Experiment That Could Answer Why We Exist

Physicists are closer than ever to answering fundamental questions about the origins of the universe by learning more about its tiniest particles.

Scientists are intensifying research into neutrinos, mysterious particles that pass through matter almost unhindered. Key goals include studying how neutrinos change types and searching for previously unknown varieties, which could transform current understanding of physics.

The Mystery of the Sterile Neutrino

University of Cincinnati Professor Alexandre Sousa has detailed the next decade of global research into neutrinos, incredibly tiny particles that travel at nearly the speed of light and pass through virtually everything by the trillions each second.

Neutrinos are the most abundant particles with mass in the universe, making them a key focus for scientists seeking to understand fundamental aspects of physics.

These particles are produced in various processes, including nuclear fusion in the sun, radioactive decay in nuclear reactors and Earth’s crust, and experiments in particle accelerators. As they move, neutrinos can switch between three types, or “flavors,” in a process that continues to intrigue researchers.

But unexpected experimental results made physicists suspect there might be another neutrino flavor, called a sterile neutrino because it appears immune to three of the four known “forces.”

“Theoretically, it interacts with gravity, but it has no interaction with the others, weak nuclear force, strong nuclear force, or electromagnetic force,” Sousa said.

Future Prospects in Neutrino Physics

“Progress in neutrino physics is expected on several fronts,” Zupan said.

Besides the search for sterile neutrinos, Zupan said physicists are looking at several experimental anomalies disagreements between data and theory that they will be able to test in the near future with the upcoming experiments.

Learning more about neutrinos could upend centuries of our understanding about physics. Several neutrino projects have been recognized with the world’s top scientific award, the Nobel Prize, most recently with the discovery of neutrino oscillations receiving the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics. Countries such as the United States are investing billions of dollars into these projects because of the immense scientific interest in pursuing these questions.

One question is why the universe has more matter than antimatter if the Big Bang created both in equal measure. Neutrino research could provide the answer, Sousa said.

“It might not make a difference in your daily life, but we’re trying to understand why we’re here,” Sousa said. “Neutrinos seem to hold the key to answering these very deep questions.”

DUNE: The Cutting-Edge of Neutrino Experiments

Sousa is part of one of the most ambitious neutrino projects called DUNE or the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment conducted by the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. Crews have excavated the former Homestake gold mine 5,000 feet underground to install neutrino detectors. It takes about 10 minutes just for the elevator to reach the detector caverns, Sousa said.

Researchers put detectors deep underground to shield them from cosmic rays and background radiation. This makes it easier to isolate the particles generated in experiments.

The experiment is set to begin in 2029 with two of its detector modules measuring neutrinos from the atmosphere. But starting in 2031, researchers at Fermilab will shoot a high-energy beam of neutrinos 800 miles through the Earth to the waiting detector in South Dakota and a much closer one in Illinois. The project is a collaboration of more than 1,400 international engineers, physicists, and other scientists.

“With these two detector modules and the most powerful neutrino beam ever we can do a lot of science,” Sousa said. “DUNE coming online will be extremely exciting. It will be the best neutrino experiment ever.”

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Measuring Solar Neutrino Fluxes: Light Mediators #sciencefather #HEP Awa...

Saturday, December 14, 2024

Multi-Species Kinetic-Fluid Coupling! #sciencefather #HEP Awards #High e...

MIT Unveils Exotic Matter Breakthrough Set to Revolutionize Quantum Computing

MIT physicists propose a method to create fractionalized electrons known as non-Abelian anyons in two-dimensional materials, potentially advancing quantum computing by enabling more reliable quantum bits without using magnetic fields.

MIT physicists have shown that it should be possible to create an exotic form of matter that could serve as the building blocks for future quantum computers. These quantum bits, or qubits, could make quantum computers even more powerful than those in development today.

Their research builds on a recent discovery of materials where electrons can split into fractional parts a phenomenon known as electron fractionalization. Crucially, this splitting happens without the need for a magnetic field, making the process more practical for real-world applications.

Electron fractionalization was first discovered in 1982, earning a Nobel Prize, but the original process required applying a magnetic field. The ability to create fractionalized electrons without this requirement opens the door to new research possibilities and practical technological uses.

When electrons split into fractions of themselves, those fractions are known as anyons. Anyons come in variety of flavors, or classes. The anyons discovered in the 2023 materials are known as Abelian anyons. Now, in a paper published recently in the journal Physical Review Letters, the MIT team notes that it should be possible to create the most exotic class of anyons, non-Abelian anyons.

“Non-Abelian anyons have the bewildering capacity of ‘remembering’ their spacetime trajectories; this memory effect can be useful for quantum computing,” says Liang Fu, a professor in MIT’s Department of Physics and leader of the work.

Fu further notes that “the 2023 experiments on electron fractionalization greatly exceeded theoretical expectations. My takeaway is that we theorists should be bolder.”

Fu is also affiliated with the MIT Materials Research Laboratory. His colleagues on the current work are graduate students Aidan P. Reddy and Nisarga Paul, and postdoc Ahmed Abouelkomsan, all of the MIT Department of Phsyics. Reddy and Paul are co-first authors of the Physical Review Letters paper.

The MIT work and two related studies were also featured in an recent story in Physics Magazine. “If this prediction is confirmed experimentally, it could lead to more reliable quantum computers that can execute a wider range of tasks … Theorists have already devised ways to harness non-Abelian states as workable qubits and manipulate the excitations of these states to enable robust quantum computation,” writes Ryan Wilkinson.

The current work was guided by recent advances in 2D materials, or those consisting of only one or a few layers of atoms. “The whole world of two-dimensional materials is very interesting because you can stack them and twist them, and sort of play Legos with them to get all sorts of cool sandwich structures with unusual properties,” says Paul. Those sandwich structures, in turn, are called moiré materials.

Friday, December 13, 2024

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Physics vs Data! #sciencefather #HEP awards #Hig...

The Breakthrough in Magnetic Levitation: A Game-Changer for Industry

In the world of cutting-edge science and technology, few discoveries can be as transformative as those involving magnetic levitation. Recently, a breakthrough in this field has captured the attention of both scientists and industry professionals alike, signaling the potential for revolutionizing various technologies.

Two years ago, an electronics engineer named Hamdi Ucar from Turkey stumbled upon a phenomenon that could change everything we know about magnetic levitation. While this discovery may seem like something out of a science fiction movie, it is, in fact, grounded in the principles of physics an achievement that could unlock new possibilities in industries ranging from robotics to transportation.

Ucar’s experiments in magnetic levitation began with a simple setup: a magnet connected to a motor, placed in a precise position. When he brought a second magnet near the first, something extraordinary happened. The second magnet began to spin and levitate just a few centimeters above the first, defying the natural pull of gravity.

This moment of wonder led to a flurry of questions: How did the second magnet remain suspended without falling? What forces were at play? How could this new understanding of levitation change the way we think about physical interactions? These intriguing questions prompted further investigation from leading scientists.

The discovery made by Ucar caught the attention of two researchers from the DTU Energy in Denmark, Professor Rasmus Bjørk and Joachim M. Hermansen. Their curiosity led them to dive deeper into the mechanics of this peculiar phenomenon, ultimately revealing some unexpected results. In a recent study published in Physics Review Applied, the researchers uncovered the secret behind this magnetic levitation: the key to the levitation lies in the slight tilting of the magnets’ axes relative to their rotation.

Bjørk explains, “Normally, magnets should attract or repel each other when placed close together. But when you make one of them rotate, it can levitate. The force acting on the magnets shouldn’t change just by making one rotate, so there seems to be a coupling between the movement and the magnetic force.”

This discovery has upended long-held assumptions in the field of magnetism, offering an elegant explanation for a phenomenon that had previously baffled many. The research team carried out several experiments, including tests with spherical magnets and more complex laboratory setups, to confirm their findings.

While the scientific community has been quick to analyze the theoretical implications of this discovery, the real excitement lies in its potential applications. One of the most promising areas for this new understanding of magnetic levitation is robotics. Currently, magnetic fields are used in robotic arms for tasks that require delicate handling. However, the use of rotating magnets could lead to more efficient, precise, and even more powerful solutions in this space.

The possibility of manipulating objects without physical contact opens up a world of innovation. Imagine industries where assembly lines, surgical operations, or even warehouse logistics no longer require direct physical interaction with objects. This could minimize the risk of damage, reduce friction, and speed up processes.

However, as with all scientific breakthroughs, the practical applications remain a bit elusive at this stage. While the theoretical foundation has been laid, future research will be needed to understand the broader possibilities. Fraderick Laust Durhus, also from DTU Energy, points out, “The true potential will depend on the expansion or reduction of the phenomenon and the energy costs involved.”

The research into magnetic levitation by the Danish team could unlock more than just answers to fundamental questions about physics, it could pave the way for a whole new generation of technologies. From the potential for faster, more efficient transportation systems to advanced medical devices that require minimal contact, the opportunities seem limitless.

Website: International Research Awards on High Energy Physics and Computational Science.

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Thursday, December 12, 2024

The Hidden Lorentz Covariance in Quantum Mechanics #sciencefather #HEP a...

Neutrinos, Dark Energy, and Einstein: DESI Maps the Universe’s Secrets

New analysis supports Einstein’s relativity and narrows neutrino mass ranges, hinting at evolving dark energy.

Gravity, the fundamental force sculpting the universe, has shaped tiny variations in matter from the early cosmos into the vast networks of galaxies we see today. Using data from the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI), scientists have traced the evolution of these cosmic structures over the past 11 billion years. This research represents the most precise large-scale test of gravity ever conducted, offering unprecedented insights into the universe’s formation and behavior.

Researcher Héctor Gil Marín, from the Faculty of Physics and the Institute of Cosmos Sciences of the University of Barcelona (ICCUB), has co-led this new analysis and says that “these data allow us to study how fast the largest structures of the Universe have formed, to put limits to Einstein’s General Relativity theory at cosmological scales much larger than those of the solar system.” The researcher, who is also a member of the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia (IEEC), adds that “for now, the results fit perfectly with the predictions of Einstein’s General Relativity theory.”

The study also provides a new upper limit on the mass of neutrinos, whose only elementary particles have not yet had their masses measured. Previous experiments revealed that the sum of the masses of the three types of neutrinos should be at least 0.059 eV/c2 (for comparison, that of the electron is 511 000 eV/c2). The DESI results indicate that this sum should be less than 0.071 eV/c2, which leaves a very narrow window for the possible values of the neutrino masses.

The DESI collaboration has presented the new results in several scientific papers available in the arXiv repository. The complex analysis of the data used nearly six million galaxies and quasars located at distances ranging from one to eleven billion light-years from Earth

The results presented today are an in-depth analysis of data from the first year of DESI, which in April presented the largest 3D map of the Universe ever made and found some hints that dark energy may be changing over time. The results published then focused on a particular property of the spatial distribution of galaxies, known as baryon acoustic oscillations (BAOs). This new analysis incorporates all the information contained in the shape of the power spectrum and extends the scope of the above to extract more information from the data, allowing the distribution of galaxies and matter to be measured on different spatial scales. The study has required months of work and additional checks. As in the previous case, they have used a blind analysis technique that hides the results until the end, to mitigate any bias.

Eusebio Sánchez, a researcher at the Research Center for Energy, Environment and Technology (CIEMAT) who has collaborated in the analysis of the data, says that “the results obtained with the first year of DESI data are stunning.” And he clarifies that “this is only the beginning, the project is taking more data that will allow us to improve our current knowledge of gravity and dark energy.”

Website: International Research Awards on High Energy Physics and Computational Science.

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Wednesday, December 11, 2024

Quantum Motion: Wigner Time Delay & Hartman Effect Explained! #sciencefa...

A Physicist Explains How to Imagine The Universe's Mind-Bending Expansion

When you bake a loaf of bread or a batch of muffins, you put the dough into a pan. As the dough bakes in the oven, it expands into the baking pan. Any chocolate chips or blueberries in the muffin batter become farther away from each other as the muffin batter expands.

The expansion of the Universe is, in some ways, similar. But this analogy gets one thing wrong while the dough expands into the baking pan, the Universe doesn't have anything to expand into. It just expands into itself.

It can feel like a brain teaser, but the Universe is considered everything within the Universe. In the expanding Universe, there is no pan. Just dough. Even if there were a pan, it would be part of the Universe and therefore it would expand with the pan.

Even for me, a teaching professor in physics and astronomy who has studied the Universe for years, these ideas are hard to grasp. You don't experience anything like this in your daily life. It's like asking what direction is farther north of the North Pole.

Another way to think about the Universe's expansion is by thinking about how other galaxies are moving away from our galaxy, the Milky Way.

Scientists know the Universe is expanding because they can track other galaxies as they move away from ours. They define expansion using the rate that other galaxies move away from us. This definition allows them to imagine expansion without needing something to expand into.

The expanding Universe

The Universe started with the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago. The Big Bang describes the origin of the Universe as an extremely dense, hot singularity. This tiny point suddenly went through a rapid expansion called inflation, where every place in the Universe expanded outward.

But the name Big Bang is misleading. It wasn't a giant explosion, as the name suggests, but a time where the Universe expanded rapidly.

The Universe then quickly condensed and cooled down, and it started making matter and light. Eventually, it evolved to what we know today as our Universe.

The idea that our Universe was not static and could be expanding or contracting was first published by the physicist Alexander Friedman in 1922. He confirmed mathematically that the Universe is expanding.

While Friedman proved that the Universe was expanding, at least in some spots, it was Edwin Hubble who looked deeper into the expansion rate. Many other scientists confirmed that other galaxies are moving away from the Milky Way, but in 1929, Hubble published his famous paper that confirmed the entire Universe was expanding, and that the rate it's expanding at is increasing.

This discovery continues to puzzle astrophysicists. What phenomenon allows the Universe to overcome the force of gravity keeping it together while also expanding by pulling objects in the Universe apart? And on top of all that, its expansion rate is speeding up over time.

Many scientists use a visual called the expansion funnel to describe how the Universe's expansion has sped up since the Big Bang. Imagine a deep funnel with a wide brim. The left side of the funnel the narrow end represents the beginning of the Universe. As you move toward the right, you are moving forward in time. The cone widening represents the Universe's expansion.

Scientists haven't been able to directly measure where the energy causing this accelerating expansion comes from. They haven't been able to detect it or measure it. Because they can't see or directly measure this type of energy, they call it dark energy.

According to researchers' models, dark energy must be the most common form of energy in the Universe, making up about 68 percent of the total energy in the Universe. The energy from everyday matter, which makes up the Earth, the Sun and everything we can see, accounts for only about 5 percent of all energy.

Outside the expansion funnel

So, what is outside the expansion funnel?

Scientists don't have evidence of anything beyond our known Universe. However, some predict that there could be multiple Universes. A model that includes multiple Universes could fix some of the problems scientists encounter with the current models of our Universe.

One major problem with our current physics is that researchers can't integrate quantum mechanics, which describes how physics works on a very small scale, and gravity, which governs large-scale physics.

The rules for how matter behaves at the small scale depend on probability and quantized, or fixed, amounts of energy. At this scale, objects can come into and pop out of existence. Matter can behave as a wave. The quantum world is very different from how we see the world.

At large scales, which physicists call classical mechanics, objects behave how we expect them to behave on a day-to-day basis. Objects are not quantized and can have continuous amounts of energy. Objects do not pop in and out of existence.

The quantum world behaves kind of like a light switch, where energy has only an on-off option. The world we see and interact with behaves like a dimmer switch, allowing for all levels of energy.

But researchers run into problems when they try to study gravity at the quantum level. At the small scale, physicists would have to assume gravity is quantized. But the research many of them have conducted doesn't support that idea.

One way to make these theories work together is the multiverse theory. There are many theories that look beyond our current Universe to explain how gravity and the quantum world work together. Some of the leading theories include string theory, brane cosmology, loop quantum theory and many others.

Regardless, the Universe will continue to expand, with the distance between the Milky Way and most other galaxies getting longer over time.

Website: International Research Awards on High Energy Physics and Computational Science.

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Tuesday, December 10, 2024

Particle Dynamics in Magnetic Fields Explained!#sciencefather#HEP Awards...

Quantum Censorship Could Hide The Awful Truth of What Lies Inside a Black Hole

Albert Einstein's theory of gravity, general relativity, is famously incomplete. As proven by physics Nobel laureate Roger Penrose, when matter collapses under its own gravitational pull, the result is a "singularity" a point of infinite density or curvature.

At a singularity, space, time and matter are crushed and stretched into nonexistence. The laws of physics as we know them suffer a complete breakdown.

If we could observe singularities, our physical theories couldn't be used to predict the future from the past. In other words, science would become an impossibility. Penrose also realized nature may hold a remedy for this fate black holes.

A defining feature of a black hole is its event horizon, a one-way membrane in space-time. Objects including light that cross the event horizon can never leave due to the black hole's incredibly strong gravitational pull. In all the known mathematical descriptions of black holes, singularities are present in their core.

Penrose postulated that all the singularities of gravitational collapse are "clothed" by the event horizons of black holes meaning we could never observe one. With the singularity inside the event horizon, physics in the rest of the universe is business as usual. This conjecture of Penrose, that there are no "naked" singularities, is called cosmic censorship.

After half a century, it remains unproven and one of the most important open problems in mathematical physics. At the same time, finding examples of instances where the conjecture doesn't hold up has proven equally difficult.

In recent work, published in Physical Review Letters, we showed that quantum mechanics, which rules the microcosmos of particles and atoms, supports cosmic censorship.

Black holes

Black holes are influenced by quantum mechanics to some extent, but such influence is normally ignored by physicists. For example, Penrose excluded these effects in his work, as did the theory that enabled scientists to measure ripples in space-time called gravitational waves from black holes.

When they are included, scientists call the black holes "quantum black holes". These have long provided a further mystery, as we don't know how Penrose's conjecture works in the quantum realm.

A model where both matter and space-time obey quantum mechanics is often considered the fundamental description of nature. This could be a "theory of everything" or a theory of "quantum gravity". Despite tremendous effort, an experimentally verified theory of quantum gravity remains elusive.

It is widely expected that any viable theory of quantum gravity should resolve the singularities present in the classical theory potentially showing they are simply an artefact of an incomplete description. So it's reasonable to expect quantum effects should not make the problem of whether we could ever observe a singularity worse.

That's because Penrose's singularity theorem makes certain assumptions about the nature of matter, namely that the matter in the universe always has positive energy.

However, such assumptions can be violated quantum mechanically we know that negative energy can exist in the quantum realm in small amounts (called the Casimir effect).

Without a fully fledged theory of quantum gravity, it is difficult to address these questions. But progress can be made by considering "semi-classical" or "partially-quantum" gravity, where space-time obeys general relativity but matter is described with quantum mechanics.

Though the defining equations of semi-classical gravity are known, solving them is another story entirely. Compared to the classical case, our understanding of quantum black holes is much less complete.

From what we do know of quantum black holes, they also develop singularities. But we expect a suitable generalisation of classical cosmic censorship, namely, quantum cosmic censorship, should exist in semi-classical gravity.

Developing quantum cosmic censorship

So far, there is not an established formulation of quantum cosmic censorship, though there are some clues.In some cases, a naked singularity can become modified by quantum effects to shroud the singularities; they become quantum dressed. That's because quantum mechanics plays a role in the event horizon.

The first such example was presented by physicists Roberto Emparan, Alessandro Fabbri and Nemanja Kaloper in 2002. Now, all known constructions of quantum black holes share this feature, suggesting a more rigorous formulation of quantum cosmic censorship exists.

Intimately linked to cosmic censorship is the Penrose inequality. This is a mathematical relationship that, assuming cosmic censorship, says the mass or energy of of space-time is related to the area of black hole horizons contained within it. Consequently, a violation of the Penrose inequality would strongly suggest a violation of cosmic censorship.

A quantum Penrose inequality could therefore be used to rigorously formulate quantum cosmic censorship. One team of researchers proposed such an inequality in 2019. While promising, their proposal is very difficult to test for quantum black holes in regimes where quantum effects are strong.

In our work, we discovered a quantum Penrose inequality that applies to all known examples of quantum black holes, even in the presence of strong quantum effects.

The quantum Penrose inequality limits the energy of space-time in terms of the total entropy a statistical measure of a system's disorder of the black holes and quantum matter contained within it. This addition of quantum matter entropy ensures the quantum inequality is true even when the classical version breaks down (on quantum scales).

That the total energy of this system cannot be lower than the total entropy is also natural from the standpoint of thermodynamics. To prevent a violation of the second law of thermodynamics that the total entropy never decreases.

When quantum matter is introduced, its entropy is added to the black hole's, obeying a generalized second law. In other words, Penrose inequality can also be understood as bounds on entropy exceed this bound, and the space-time develops naked singularities.

On logical grounds, it was not obvious that all known quantum black holes would satisfy the same, universal inequality, but we showed they do.

Our result is not a proof of a quantum Penrose inequality. But that such a result holds in the quantum domain as well as the classical one strengthens it.

While space and time may end at singularities, quantum mechanics screen this fate from us.

Website: International Research Awards on High Energy Physics and Computational Science.

Monday, December 9, 2024

Advanced Simulations Clarify Neutron Star Dynamics and Supernova Physics

Researchers have developed a new computational method to explore the neutron matter inside neutron stars at densities higher than previously studied.

This method provides insights into the behavior of neutrinos during supernova explosions, enhancing the accuracy of simulations and potentially improving our understanding of such cosmic events.

Advances in Neutron Matter Simulation

When a star dies in a supernova, its remnants may collapse into a neutron star. In these incredibly dense objects, protons and electrons merge to form uncharged neutrons, creating a substance known as neutron matter.

A team of researchers has recently explored neutron matter at higher densities than ever before, calculating its spin and density correlations using advanced nuclear interaction models. Spin and density correlations describe the likelihood of finding a neutron at a specific location and with a particular spin direction. These properties are crucial for understanding how neutrinos scatter and transfer heat during core-collapse supernovas.

To achieve these insights, the researchers used cutting-edge computational simulations and developed a novel algorithm. This algorithm significantly reduces the computational effort required for simulating the behavior of multiple particles, paving the way for more accurate and efficient models of neutron matter.

Impact on Supernova Simulation Technologies

Researchers can use the results of this new study in realistic simulations of supernova explosions. Nearly all the energy released in a core-collapse supernova is carried away by neutrinos. The outward flow of neutrinos energizes the neutron-rich matter in the supernova. This increases the likelihood of an explosion. This work calculates how spin and density distributions affect the neutrino-induced heating of neutron-rich matter. It provides important data for calibrating codes used in supernova simulations.

A team of researchers from the United States, China, Turkey, and Germany performed ab initio (from the most fundamental principles) simulations to compute spin and density correlations in neutron matter using realistic nuclear interactions. The team performed the new calculations at higher neutron densities than had previously been explored. The results can be used to calibrate codes used for realistic simulations of core-collapse supernova.

Enhancing Computational Efficiency in Nuclear Physics

To perform the calculations, the researchers introduced a new algorithm called the “rank-one operator method” that greatly reduces the computational effort needed to calculate observables involving several particles. The rank-one operator method exploits a simplification in the complicated mathematics used in computing neutrino transport through dense nuclear matter, resulting in much more efficient computation. The rank-one operator method has since been applied to calculations of other observables in nuclear physics as well as other fields.

Website: International Research Awards on High Energy Physics and Computational Science.

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Saturday, December 7, 2024

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Neutron Stars Illuminate the Hidden Physics of Quark Superconductivity

Requiring consistency between the physics of neutron stars and quark matter leads to the first astrophysical constraint on this exotic phase of matter.

Recent research uses neutron star measurements to place empirical limits on the strength of color superconducting pairing in quark matter, revealing new insights into the physics of the densest visible matter in the universe through astronomical observations.

Color Superconductivity

At extremely high densities, quarks are expected to pair up, much like electrons in a superconductor. This phenomenon, known as color superconductivity, occurs under extreme conditions. Calculating the strength of these quark pairings is challenging, but scientists have long understood its relationship to the pressure within dense matter. By measuring the size of neutron stars and how they deform during mergers, researchers can estimate their internal pressures, confirming that neutron stars are the densest visible matter in the universe.

In this study, researchers analyzed observations of neutron stars to infer properties of quark matter at even higher densities, where color superconductivity is certain to occur. Their work provides the first empirical upper limit on the strength of color superconducting pairing.

Empirical Insights From Neutron Stars

While color superconductivity has been a focus of theoretical physicists for over two decades, this study is the first to use data from neutron stars to establish empirical constraints on pairing strength. This breakthrough opens a new frontier in understanding quark matter through astrophysical observations of neutron stars.

Data-Driven Analysis of Quark Matter

Measurements from NICER, LIGO/Virgo, and ground-based radio telescopes provide insight into the pressures and densities at the cores of various neutron stars, each with some uncertainty.

In this study, scientists performed a statistical analysis of these measurements to extract a range of possible pressures at quark-matter densities. Scientists know what the pressure of quark matter at these high densities would be without considering quark pairing, so the range of possible deviation from that baseline provided this study’s researchers with the range of pairing effects that are consistent with the neutron star observations.

This allowed the researchers to extract empirical bounds on the strength of color superconducting pairing.

Website: International Research Awards on High Energy Physics and Computational Science.